Aboriginal Weapons

Aboriginal people used a great variety of tools, weapons and utensils as they hunted, fished and gathered plant foods and small animals. Though Australia contains many different climates and environments, 

the basic pattern of Aboriginal life was much the same throughout the continent. Small groups moved with the seasons over a certain territory. The size of the groups and of the territories varied. Although there were many regional differences, all Aboriginal people used the same basic range of equipment that included:

• Cutting and chopping tools, such as hatchets, knives and adzes

• Hunting and fighting equipment, such as clubs, spears and boomerangs

• Netting and trapping equipment

• Food-processing equipment such as mortars and pestles

• Digging sticks

• Containers

However, some of the implements listed above, for instance boomerangs, were unknown or little used in some areas. And the relative importance of other items varied according to the different hunting and gathering practices that developed across the country. In most areas, people used many different types of spears; however, in south-eastern parts of Australia large nets for fishing or trapping animals and wildfowl were essential items of equipment.

All the implements made by Aboriginal people were uniquely adapted to the environment in which they were used. They would have been developed and refined over many generations and were usually fashioned from readily available bush materials stone, wood, bark, lengths of vine, plant fibre, resin, shells and the hair, sinew, bones and teeth of animals. Important materials not locally available (such as certain types of stone or even finished artifacts) were obtained through trade. Many trade networks existed throughout Aboriginal Australia, allowing artifacts and raw materials to travel thousands of kilometers from their original source.

Most of the implements were light and portable, adapted for a way of life that depended on regular movement. The exceptions included the heavier types of grindstones of Central Australia, the Pilbara and adjacent areas; the heavy wooden bowls of south-eastern Australia, and wooden mortars and pestles in northern Australia. These implements were often carefully cached, or stored, at those places where they were most needed.

Instant tools

Many tools were just made on the spot when required and thrown away after use. Perhaps the commonest tools were simple flakes of stone, or in coastal areas the strong, sharp edges of shells. These were used for gutting animals or removing bark or wood from trees. Other 'instant' tools included twists of grass or bark fashioned swiftly into head-rings when carrying coolamons of water and foodstuffs, and fallen branches used as digging or throwing sticks. Small hooks for extracting insect larvae from trees were obtained by stripping a suitable twig from any handy bush. Many of these tools had more skillfully made counterparts that were carefully looked after.

Stone tools

The heaviest and most durable material available to Aboriginal people was stone. The use of metal was unknown until contact with Indonesian fishermen in the north and, later, Europeans.

Stone tools were made by a variety of techniques. The types made and the techniques used changed over the many generations of Aboriginal occupation of Australia. In some areas we can trace a history of stone-tool making because the tools are preserved in archaeological deposits.

The most basic stone tool was a simple, naturally broken heavy piece of rock. With such a tool bark could be removed from trees to make utensils, or simple wood-working tasks undertaken.

To make more sophisticated and efficient tools, or to conserve raw materials, stone-tool makers either flaked or ground suitable stone materials. Some stones, particularly those composed of finer grained siliceous materials are more suitable for flaking, while the tougher rocks such as basalt and dolerite are more amenable to grinding techniques.

Flaking

Flaking involves the removal of controlled pieces, or, flakes, of stone from a larger piece, which is called the core. There are two basic methods of flaking stone.

The first method shapes the core by flaking with a hammerstone, either to produce a stout cutting edge or to shape the material into a specific form. Simple choppers are made in this way by the removal of a few flakes along the perimeter of a pebble or cobble. More complex core tools such as hand axes require greater working.

The second method treats the original piece of rock as a source of raw material. The flakes removed are used as tools, either as they come off the core or after further trimming. (Of course, people who made core tools would probably have used some of the waste flakes as small knives or scrapers. Similarly, those who generally sought to produce flakes may have used the core when it was exhausted - or no longer capable of producing suitable flakes - as a heavy scraper or similar tool.)

Flakes are generally removed from the core by striking it with a hammerstone, usually made from a tougher, harder rock than the core. The core is usually held in the hand or rests on the ground. One method of stone working found in many areas of Australia is known as the bi-polar flaking technique; this is often used when working small pieces of quartz. In this technique the piece of stone to be flaked is held on an anvil of stone then sharply hit with the harnmerstone. The core is compressed on impact and fragments of stone suitable for making small tools are sheared from it. Bi-polar cores usuaft exhibit crushing at each end.

A struck flake may be used just as it comes off the core or may be retouched to improve its edge or to give it a more finished shape. Retouch may be by percussion flaking, that is by hitting it with a head of stone, bone or wood, or by pressure flaking. Pressure flaking removes small flakes in a controlled manner by pressing with a bone or hardwood indenter on the edge of the stone. In the Kimberley region of Western Australia beautiful spearheads of stone and glass are made using this technique.

In some areas of Australia carefully heating and cooling it in earth ovens improve the quality of the stone to be worked. The heat treatment of stone improves its flake ability, making it easier to remove longer flakes with sharper edges and with more control than is possible with the raw material.

Grinding

The fashioning of stone tools by grinding is a much more recent technological development than most techniques based on flaking. Australia, however, has some of the earliest evidence of the use of ground stone technology found anywhere in the world. Hatchets with edges sharpened by grinding, dated at about 20 000 years old, have been found in the east Alligator River region of the Northern Territory.

Ground-stone artifacts are made either on naturally occurring pebbles or on preforms prepared by either flaking or pecking. Pecking involves the removal of small particles of stone from the artifact by tapping it with a harder hammerstone, crumbling its surface. When the preform is judged to be suitable, the craftsman begins grinding the cutting edges. Grinding the preform either on a portable grindstone or at an outcrop of a suitably abrasive stone, the craftsman gradually levels and smoothes the faces and cutting edge of the tool being made. Water may be used to enhance the abrading action of the grindstone and many axe-grinding grooves are to be found on outcrops of sandstone located near pools and streams.

Edge grinding was used to shape and sharpen stone hatchets in many areas of Australia. Smaller knives and chisels of both stone and shell were also made using grinding techniques, as were stone sacred objects.

Hafting

Once made, many stone tools were hafted, or fitted with handles. Axes and hatchets were generally hafted by bending a supple piece of wood, vine or cane around the body of the axe-head and tying the two ends together.

Resin obtained from plants such as spinifex, the grass tree and acacias was often used to ensure an even better bond between head and handle. In areas where native bees occurred, the wax from the hives was an important adhesive. Flake tools and spear tips were often hafted with resins or waxes directly to shafts and handles. Resin was therefore a very important item in the Aboriginal toolkit.

Tools made from bone

Bones, obtained from larger animals and birds, provided Aboriginal people with strong raw material that was shaped, principally by grinding, into a variety of useful tools.

Larger bones ground to a chisel edge were used on Cope York to hollow out soft-wood carrying bowls. The large upper incisor of a male dugong was similarly used along the northern coast from Arnhem Land to Broome.

Smaller bones were ground to fine points at one or both ends and they served as awls, needles, shafts to which feathers could be attached to make plumed ornaments, or as needle-like tips for spear heads and fish hooks. In the Kimberley, delicate stone and glass spearheads are made with tools of bone.

Chopping and cutting tools

In most areas of Australia stone was used for heavy work such as chopping or cutting wood, as well as for fashioning other stone tools. Smaller stone tools were used as knives and scrapers or to produce delicate carving on wood.

Hatchets

In many areas, hafted stone hatchets were made with carefully ground edges. Apparently, their main function was to open hollow logs to extract possums, birds and 'sugarbag' (native honey).

In the south-west of Australia a unique form of hatchet, the kodj, was made by hafting two sharp flakes of stone with grass-tree resin on to a simple stick handle. Sometimes only one sharp flake was hafted for cutting purposes, a small harnm one replacing the other. The hammerstone was used for clubbing wounded animals and making other stone implements.

Where stone hatchets did not occur, hand-held stone-core tools fulfilled their functions. These were simple cobbles and boulders of stone chipped to a sharp edge on one side.

Adzes

An important tool used in Central Australia and adjacent areas was the stone adze. This tool consisted of a stone flake, often of a very distinctive form, hafted with Spinifex resin to a straight or curved hardwood shaft. Used either with a chopping motion (for heavy work) or by carefully drawing the tool across the surface to be worked, extremely fine woodwork was often done with this tool alone. Some adzes had stone adze flakes hafted at either end of the shaft, while others had a cutting edge of stone at one end and a flake suitable for engraving or fluting artefacts mounted at the other. This engraving tool allowed the craftsman to give a fine fluted finish to wooden objects or to engrave designs on them. The lower incisor teeth of possums and wallabies were also used as engraving tools.

In some areas the adze-stone was a specially prepared semi discoidal flake known as a 'tula'. In other areas any flake with a suitable cutting edge was used.

In the Western Desert and Central Australia spear throwers often had an adze-stone mounted on the handle. This was used to sharpen spear tips when hunting and also to butcher animals killed by the hunter. In the Sydney district mounted shell tools were used for similar purposes. 

Knives

A variety of knives were used in Aboriginal Australia. For casual use, any sharp flake or shell served as a knife when needed and was often discarded after use. Some small flake-knives were equipped with a resin haft for more comfortable handling.

In the south-west a specialised knife, the taap, was made by fixing with resin a line of small stone (and later glass) flakes along one side of a stick handle. On Cape York a similar knife, used for fighting, had small shark teeth forming the cutting edge.

In Central Australia and adjacent areas of Queensland long carefully flaked blades of stone were fitted with either resin or resin and wood handles and kept in paperbark sheaths. The handles were often painted with totemic designs relating to their owner. Women in Central Australia had a similar knife with a trimmed rounded end said to have been used for scooping cooked yams from their jackets.

In Arnhem Land, a knife made from the prepared edge of a kangaroo shoulder blade was used to slice yams and other vegetable foods. Snail shells with a hole punched through the side were also used in this area to prepare vegetable foods and to plane down the surfaces of wooden artifacts.

While most knives were used for making implements and preparing foods, the shark-teeth knives and the long blade knives were used for settling conflicts between individuals. In the Adelaide district of South Australia a specialised, needle-like dagger of emu bone was used to assassinate an enemy.

Fire as a tool

The importance of fire as a tool cannot be underestimated. Apart from the more obvious uses to cook food or provide warmth - fire was used to open up areas of under story in forest areas and maintain grasslands. Fronts of fire were used to drive some to waiting hunters and smoky fires were lit to attract hawks and bustards to concealed hunters or to drive out animals concealed in hollow trees or burrows in the ground.

Fire also played a vital role in the manufacture of many implements. Careful heating of shafts when making spears made them flexible and allowed kinks and bends to be straightened out. With heating, a flattened length of wood can be bent and secured about an axe-head to make a handle. Fire was required to harden wooden spear points, to hasten the hollowing out of wooden bowls and canoes, and to treat barks and fibres to flatten them or make them supple. Many of the resins used by Aboriginal peoples as adhesives required the application of heat in their preparation and application.

As we have seen, stone could be made more suitable for flaking by baking it carefully in earth ovens. Quarrying of bulky raw materials often required fire to split boulders of stone into more conveniently handled pieces.

Because of its importance, fire had an important place in many of the religious song-cycles and ceremonies practiced across Aboriginal Australia.

Making fire

Aboriginal people had two basic ways to make fire, which are still used in some parts of Australia. They are the fire-drill and fire-saw. Some Aboriginal groups may also have used flint and pyrites to strike a spark. Even today many Aboriginal stockmen carry tinder, steel and quartz in a tin for use when matches and lighters are not available.

The fire-drill consists of two thin rods of suitable wood. One is called the hearth stick; the other the drill. The drill is rotated rapidly between the palms of the hands while it is being pressed into a small socket on the hearth stick. The hearth stick rests on a small pad of suitable tinder (usually dried kangaroo dung or other easily inflammable fibrous substance). As the drill is rotated it creates a fine charcoal-like dust that piles up on the hearth. Heat from the friction between the drill and the hearth ignites this powder, which falls on to the tinder and sets it smoldering. The tinder, now burning slowly, is wrapped in teased grass fibres and gently blown upon or waved in the breeze until it bursts into flame.

Most fire-drills are no more than simple sticks. However, on Cape York Peninsula and in the Cairns-Port Douglas regions of Queensland more elaborate drill kits were used. On Cape York the drill and hearth stick may be over a metre long and are kept together in cane sheaths. Rainforest fire-drills have a long simple drill; however, the hearth piece may consist of a flat board carved into a human shape and then painted.

Fire-saws are made by splitting one end of a section of root or branch of suitable wood. This is wedged open and the crack filled with tinder. By sawing a thin slab of wood across the split a coal of powdered wood is created that sets the tinder smoldering. The edges of boomerangs and spear throwers may be used as a saw to start fire in this way.

In Central Australia, instead of splitting a piece of wood, a cavity may be gouged out of the face of a softwood shield. The tinder is placed in this. The edge of a boomerang or spear thrower is then rapidly sawn across the cavity until the tinder is ignited. Old shields often show evidence of having been used on numerous occasions as a fire-lighting tool.

Hunting and fighting weapons

In many areas of Australia hunting and fighting weapons were interchangeable. In other areas specialised weapons were created solely for fighting purposes.

Clubs

The basic weapon was the club. Clubs varied from simple lengths of hardwood chopped from any convenient tree, to ornately carved and balanced works of art. S6me club types were used predominantly as throwing sticks while others were designed for striking at game or an enemy.

The fighting clubs of eastern Australia had a variety of head forms - conical, mushroom, pineapple, bladed and pick-like. The Tiwi of Bathurst and Melville Islands in the Northern Territory still make a wide range of throwing clubs with bulbous, pointed or bifurcated heads. In western Arnhem Land large gracefully balanced sword-clubs were used in duels.

The largest clubs in Aboriginal Australia were the sword-clubs used in the rainforest areas of northern Queensland. These were fearsome weapons with blades over a metre in length made of hard, heavy timber. As Europeans came into the rainforest areas such clubs were often made from worn-out cross-cut saw blades.

Across much of Australia women used large, heavy pole-clubs to settle disputes between themselves. These clubs might also be used as ceremonial objects in women's rituals.

Boomerangs

The boomerang possibly developed over time as a modification of the throwing stick. Not all Aboriginal people made or used boomerangs. In some areas they were used in the past, but later abandoned; in other areas many different forms were made. The Bardi and Nyool Nyool of the Kimberley, for instance, even used a specialised boomerang for fishing in shallow waters.

Returning boomerangs are believed to be an Australian invention. However, their distribution was limited. They were used in traditional sporting events and games, as well as to kill birds or drive them into nets set across strategic flyways. Returning boomerangs are usually thinner and lighter than ordinary boomerangs. Their arms also have a slight twist that provides the necessary aerodynamic surfaces to control the flight of the weapon. A special type of returning boomerang, made by pegging or lashing two small, flat laths of wood together at right angles, was found in the Cairns district of Queensland.

Hunting boomerangs are generally heavier than returning boomerangs. Used for both hunting and fighting, they were lethal weapons in the hands of skilled marksmen. Many were beautifully decorated with fluted or finely engraved designs on one or both surfaces. One specialised fighting boomerang was fashioned from the junction of a tree trunk and its roots. It had a flattened, pick-like appearance. The projection was designed to catch on the shield or stick used by the defender causing the boomerang to swing around the obstruction and deliver a crushing blow to the enemy.

Boomerangs were widely traded across Australia into areas where they were neither made nor used in hunting. Such boomerangs might have been used in ceremonies as ritual objects, or as clap-sticks to accompany the singing of songs.

Spears

Along with clubs and throwing sticks, the spear was universally used in hunting, fishing and fighting. In some areas of Australia only one or two spear types are to be found; in others up to ten or more types can be recognised. Spears may be made from a single piece of wood or may be composite constructions with their sections carefully joined or spliced together. One-piece spears range from simple, straightened forms with sharpened, fire-hardened tips to the extremely long and-elaborately bar ceremonial spears found among the Tiwi of Bathurst and Melville Islands. In the Pilbara region of Western Australia spears carved with three or four series of barbs were formidable fighting weapons.

Composite spears ranged from simple shafts with an attached barb to extremely complex forms with multi-sectioned shafts and attached prongs with bone or hardwood barbs. Spearheads might be made of hardwood, bone, stingray spines or stone; the shafts I to which they were attached were light, ensuring that the spears could be thrown great distances and still bring down game or stop an enemy advance.

Specialised fishing spears, usually multi-pronged and barbed, were used along the eastern and northern coasts of Australia. In Western Australia, fishing spears were usually simple, single-piece shafts, barbed only in the south-west. In the tropics these were also used to take turtle and dugong. Elsewhere these large animals were taken by harpoons or, in Queensland, with large strong nets. In some areas spears are still used to fish, hunt game or settle conflicts. Spears are also produced for

the craft market, particularly in the Top End of the Northern Territory, Cape York and the Western Desert area. These spears are often beautifully painted with ochre's in the intricate designs of the region.

Spear throwers

Spear throwers, or woomerahs, are basically length of wood with either a peg or socket o on one end to engage the butt of the spear. When used it acts as a lever allowing the hunter to throw the spear much further than he can by hand alone, while increasing penetration and maintaining accuracy. Not all Aboriginal groups used spear throwers, and not all spears were made to be used with them.

Spear throwers may be made of either hard or lightwood and vary between 40 cm and 130 cm in length. Where lighter woods are used, the spears themselves tend to be very light and are capable of being projected very long distances. Hardwood spear throwers may be used to propel light spears, but are also strong enough to cast heavier shafts. Spear throwers vary in design across Australia – some are very simple, others more complex. The central Australian and western desert spear throwers, for instance, are multi-purpose tools. The edge may be used as a fire-saw to make fire. A stone flake is often hafted on the handle to function as a small knife or adze; this is useful in maintaining other tools or in butchering game. And the curved body may serve as a mixing bowl in preparing ochre's for painting or tobacco for chewing. In short, they are the Aboriginal equivalents of Swiss Army knives. Pilbara spear throwers may double as musical instruments. They are often serrated along one margin. When a stick is rasped along the serrations, music to accompany certain song forms is produced.

Most Australian spear throwers have the peg that engages the spear set at right angles to the main body of the implement. On Cape York, however, the peg is aligned on the same plane as the body that reduces the air resistance experienced when the implement is being used. These Cape York spear throwers are often provided with paired ovals of baler shell attached with resin at the handle or grip end.

In many areas where shields were not found or were not commonly used the spear thrower also served as an implement of defense. A skilled fighter could deflect missiles such as boomerangs or spears hurled at him with a grace and ease that appeared effortless.

Shields

Shields were used as protective devices in many but not all areas of Aboriginal Australia. Made of both hardwood and softwood, they were generally used to deflect missiles and stop clubs. Some shields were designed for specific types of fighting. The people of the rainforest areas of Queensland made Australia's largest shields. Carefully carved from the buttress roots of large fig trees and beautifully decorated with striking clan designs, these shields were used when fighting with the large sword-clubs already mentioned.

In Central Australia and adjacent areas softwood shields with fluted surfaces provided protection in times of conflict. These shields are another example of a multi-purpose implement. The hollowed-out handle formed a cavity or small bowl in which ochre's could be prepared, the convex surface could be used for lighting fires by the sawing method, and when painted with the appropriate designs the shield was transformed into an important ritual object.

Netting and trapping equipment

Along Australia's coastline and inland waterways, fish and shellfish were important sources of food for Aborigines. Fish were taken by a variety of means spears, traps, nets, lines and hooks, and poison.

Stone fish traps were permanent features that were regularly maintained. They occur on suitable areas of the coastline and on rivers in many parts of Australia. At Brewarrina in New South Wales the remains of a large complex built on the Darling River to trap migrating freshwater fish can still be seen. Portable traps made of basketry and fixed into weirs and dams made of brush were used in many regions especially where tidal variation ensured that creeks and rivers would be occupied regularly by schools of fish. Fine nets of many sizes were also used for fishing in many but not all areas of Australia.

Fishing lines equipped with hooks were used in the Northern Territory and along the eastern coast of Australia. Fishhooks were either composite or single piece. Composite hooks consisted of two pieces of wood or bone lashed together into a V-shaped form with the line being attached to one arm.

Single-piece hooks were made from shell, turtle shell or wood usually cut in a crescent form. With these hooks the fish were usually brought close to the hunter who captured them with a well-aimed spear thrust.

Large nets and traps, usually made of brush, plant fibre or sinew, were also used on land to catch game such as kangaroos and emus and waterfowl.

Mortars, pestles and grindstones

Mortars and pestles were used to prepare many types of food, such as grass seeds and nuts. In many areas of Australia large stones were used for this purpose. The food to be prepared would be placed on a heavy flat or slightly hollow rock and then pounded with a smaller stone. In some areas these utensils were made of heavy hardwoods.

Smaller stone anvils were used at many coastal sites to open shellfish - the continual battering often wore a hollow or dimple in the center of the anvil.

In the Queensland rainforest special nutting stones were used to open the hard Macadamia nut. These stones consisted of slabs of tough rock with a number of depressions pecked into them. Nuts would be placed into the depressions and then cracked with a blow from a hammerstone. Also in the rainforest areas a special grooved slab of slate is said to have been used for preparing poisonous food plants. The grooves allowed the toxic juices to drain away from the pulped food mass.

Grindstones to mill seed foods were widely used throughout Australia, particularly in drier areas where seeds were a dietary staple. Sometimes these large stone slabs formed important trade goods.

Grinding stones were also used to sharpen bone, shell and stone tools. In areas where grindstones were not used, such tasks were undertaken where outcrops of suitably abrasive rock occurred.

Containers

Aboriginal people used containers for carrying food, water, children and small utensils. The simplest forms were made from sheets of bark removed from suitably shaped sections of eucalyptus trees. Folding or pleating sheets of paperbark or stringybark, then pegging or tying the ends, made more complex bark containers. Where suitable palm trees grew, baskets were made from the young fronds and palm spathes in a similar fashion. In the Kimberley region sewn bark buckets or billycans were made, their seams sealed with beeswax, to carry water and honey.

On coastal areas shells were often used as containers. These varied in size and purpose. Smaller shells were used to mix and hold pigments for decorating people and artefacts, larger ones such as the baler and false trumpet shells could hold several liters of water and could also be used as cooking vessels. These larger shells were used as they were found, or modified by punching hand holes into them or even by removing the interior sections completely to form large durable bowls and basins.

A wide variety of utensils were made from both hard and soft wood. In the south-eastern areas of the continent the large growths or burls that may form on trees were removed and hollowed out with fire and stone tools. In Central Australia beautiful bowls and trays were made from the tough softwood of the Erythrina tree. These utensils were often decorated by engraving fluted parallel lines on their surfaces.

Hardwood coolamons, usually cut from a living tree that had been hollowed out by termites, varied from small flat plate-like scoops used for digging and as trays and plates, to large deeply curved trough-like bowls which could hold large quantities of food or water. In areas where the seed of grasses and trees formed a large proportion of the food supply, wooden trays and bowls were also used to winnow the collected seed in order to remove the husks and chaff.

Digging sticks

The universal tool and probably the most important one throughout Australia was the digging stick. Used and prized by women, these were carefully fashioned simple hardwood poles of varying lengths with either a spatulate (chisel-shaped) or pointed end. In south-eastern Australia small wooden shovels were made and used for similar purposes.

With the digging stick women collected edible tubers and roots, dug out small marsupials and reptiles from burrows, opened up termite mounds or honey-ant nests, stripped bark from trees and dug earth ovens and the foundations of dwellings. In some coastal areas digging sticks were also used to collect shellfish and spear fish trapped at low tide in rock holes.

The use of fibre and sinew

String and cord, made from plant fibres, human hair or animal fur, was prepared by a variety of spinning techniques. String was used for bindings, and was also woven into a wide variety of nets and bags.

Sinew from the legs of emus and kangaroos, or drawn from the tails of kangaroos, was used for binding when exceptionally rigid joins were required - for example in the fixing of pegs to spear throwers or spearheads to shafts. Applied wet, the sinew contracts on drying and pulls the sections being joined into a tight bond capable of withstanding a lot of stress.

Tools, weapons and utensils today

Today there are many Aboriginal people who still obtain much of their food by hunting and gathering. However, many of the implements once used have been replaced, or modified by the introduction of new materials. Rifles and shotguns have largely replaced the spear as a weapon. Where spears are still to be found, they are tipped with blades of metal or prongs of wire and metal rod. The digging stick is now often a length of metal rod beaten to a chisel edge at one end. Because of the accessibility and durability of store-bought hatchets, chisels, saws and knives, stone tools are now only rarely made. Buckets and bowls, bags and suitcases are used for carrying, though traditional vessels of basketwork or wood continue to be used in some areas of northern and Central Australia.

Many Aboriginal people are keenly aware that craft skills are being forgotten. Through the activities of cultural centers, craft groups and other Aboriginal managed organisations, they are ensuring that the knowledge of older people is maintained and passed on to younger generations.

Rock art photos from top to bottom: Grahame L. Walsh Resource Managers Pty Ltd AIATSIS Grahame L. Walsh Thanks to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Commission (ATSIC)

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